The problem may be in the land as much as in the man. The al-Sabbah ruling family of Kuwait owes its long reign and its borders in good measure to the British, who established a protectorate there in and left only in A colonial history might not seem in itself to raise doubts about legitimacy, but in this regard the Middle East may be different.
In that sense, successors to the Ottoman sultans have not yet been permanently installed, even though between and installing them was what the Allies believed themselves to be doing. In what legitimated the new countries and their leaders in Western eyes was international law, but the Arabs--upon whom these countries and these leaders were imposed--had at the time little reason to regard international law as their law.
Do they yet? Let us suppose for the sake of argument that the current American intervention brings about an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein and the installation of a regime more to our liking in Baghdad.
Only then will the Arabs--all the Arabs, not just the royal families--believe that international law secures their safety as well as ours. Only then will they find a middle course between the brutality of future Saddam Husseins and the futility of future George Bushes.
All Sections. About Us. B2B Publishing. Business Visionaries. In , the Ottomans from Turkey conquered Iraq and ruled until the British took over almost years later. Iraq became an independent country in , although the British still had a big influence. In , Saddam Hussein and his Baath Party took control of Iraq and promoted the idea that it should be ruled by Arabs.
Hussein ruled as a ruthless dictator. In , he started a long war with Iran , and in , he invaded Kuwait, triggering the first Gulf War. In , after years of sanctions against Iraq, the United States invaded again out of concern that Saddam Hussein was making dangerous weapons.
Saddam Hussein was captured, tried for crimes against humanity, and executed. All rights reserved. Personality Quizzes. Funny Fill-In.
Amazing Animals. Weird But True! Party Animals. Try This! Explore More. In , Bob Dylan was asked by the authors of a forthcoming book on Woody Guthrie to contribute a word comment summarizing his thoughts on the man who had probably been his greatest The tale originally appeared as a Congress passes the War Revenue Act, increasing income taxes to unprecedented levels in order to raise more money for the war effort.
It traveled miles. It proved extraordinarily deadly in the war and was the precursor to the Live TV. This Day In History. History Vault. In B. At the time of the invasion, the people of Mesopotamia were mostly Christian, and paid non-Muslim taxes to the invaders. As the Persians were eventually defeated, the people of Mesopotamia began to convert to Islam and intermarry with Arabs.
In C. It linked Asia to Mediterranean countries via trade; welcomed visitors, scholars, and commercial traders from all over the world; and produced incredible philosophical and scientific works by both Arab and Persian thinkers. The s witnessed yet another invasion, and control went to the Mongols, who ruled until the s. The Ottoman Turks took control in the sixteenth century, in a reign that lasted until the end of World War I. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated in that war, the League of Nations assigned Britain to set up the administration in Mesopotamia.
The British defined the territory of Iraq, and in doing so paid little attention to natural boundaries and ethnic divisions. They set up the institutional framework for government and politics, which included installation of a monarchy and influence in writing the constitution. On 14 July the monarchy was overthrown, and Iraq was declared a republic.
The following ten years were followed by much political instability. National Identity. Arab rule during the medieval period had the greatest cultural impact on modern Iraq. The dominating culture within Iraq is Arab, and most Arabs are Muslim. Iraqi Muslims are split into two groups, the Sunnis and the Shias Shiites.
The Sunnis, a majority in Islam, are a minority in Iraq, and the Shias, a minority in the Arab world, are the majority in Iraq. Between the Shia and Sunni Muslims, loyalty to Iraq has come to be a common factor.
Though they have differing views, both Sunnis and Shias hold high leadership positions in the government including the Sunni Saddam Hussein , as do some Christians. The Arab culture, as influenced by the conquerors in the seventh century, withstood many changes of power throughout the centuries, and managed to remain influential.
In the nineteenth century, while the Ottoman Empire was focusing on the "Turkification" of its people, rebels in Mesopotamia were building their Arab nationalist movement. They were granted an opportunity to act during World War I, when the British agreed to recognize Arab independence in Mesopotamia if they helped fight against the Turks.
Though Iraq was subject to British mandate rule following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Arab nationalism stood strong. For the next few decades, even after independence from Britain, the government's attitude wavered between being pro-British and Arab nationalist.
Today Iraq stands firm in its belief in pro-Arab nationalism. Ethnic Relations. The largest minority in Iraq, the Kurds, continually battle with the majority Arabs, and the sparring between these two cultural groups has contributed to a survivalist mentality for the Kurds. The Turkomans, who populate the northern mountainous areas, also have had strained relations with the Kurds due to their historical role as buffers between Arab and Kurdish areas.
Other cultural groups who are sometimes subject to the will of the Arab majority are the Yazidis, who are of Kurdish descent, but differ from the Kurds because of their unique religion. There are the Assyrians, who are direct descendents of the ancient Mesopotamian people and speak Aramaic. They are mainly Christian, and though they compose a significant minority in Iraq, the government does not officially recognize them as an ethnic group.
Regarding relations with other countries, Iraq's Shias have been the traditional enemies of Persians for centuries; this contributed to Iraq fighting Iran in a costly war from to over a land dispute. Iraq's economy was once based on agriculture, which stipulated a large rural population. However, due to oil production, an economic boom hit Iraq in the s, and with the change of economic basis, much of population migrated toward urban centers.
Modern apartment and office buildings sprang up in Baghdad, and programs and services such as education and health care developed with the shift from rural areas to urban population centers. In addition to modernization, the influx of monetary resources allowed Iraq to do things for its cultural identity and preservation, especially in architecture.
High priority was placed on restoring and building according to historic style, and the structures targeted included archaeological sites, mosques, and government buildings.
Some of the traditional aspects of the architecture include rooms surrounding an open center or courtyard, and use of multiple colors, tiles, and arches. Food in Daily Life. Prior to the United Nations economic sanctions, the traditional diet included rice with soup or sauce, accompanied by lamb and vegetables. Today, because food is tightly rationed, most people eat rice or another grain sometimes with sauce.
Both vegetables and meat are hard to come by. In rural areas it is customary for families to eat together out of a common bowl, while in urban areas individuals eat with plates and utensils.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. It is traditional to sacrifice a lamb or a goat to celebrate holidays. However, today few Iraqis have the means to do this, and celebrations are now minimal.
Basic Economy. Iraq's economy is currently in a difficult position. Following the Persian Gulf War, the United Nations imposed Security Council Resolution , which requires Iraq to disclose the full extent of its programs to develop chemical and nuclear weapons and missiles, and to eliminate its weapons of mass destruction.
Until Iraq complies with these requirements, the United Nations attests that there will be an economic embargo and trade sanctions against Iraq. At first the resolution meant that Iraq could not assume trade relations with any foreign country.
The most important industries in Iraq produce crude oil, petroleum products, and natural gas. Two-thirds of the proceeds are to be spent on food and medicine for the Iraqi people; the remaining third is to be directed to victims of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait.
Prior to the sanctions, Iraq imported about 70 percent of its food. However, food shortages have forced people to grow their own, but given the severity of the economic situation of the country, it is difficult for Iraqis to find the means to do this. Items that are imported through the oil-for-food program are distributed to people in a food basket on the first of each month.
The rations are estimated to last twenty to twenty-three days and include flour, tea, sugar, rice, beans, milk, cooking oil, soap, and salt. Land Tenure and Property. Private property was an important notion first introduced by the Sumerians during their control of Mesopotamia, and emerged again in the late nineteenth century. The reintroduction of private property had a major impact on Iraq's social system, as it went from a feudal society where sheikhs provided both spiritual and tribal leadership for the inhabitants, to one separated between landowners and sharecroppers.
At present many people have sold or are selling their land to the government to purchase essentials such as food and medicine. Though private property does exist, fewer and fewer people can now claim it. Commercial Activities. Oil, mining, manufacturing, construction, and agriculture are the major types of goods and services produced for sale.
Major Industries. Crude oil, refined petroleum products, and natural gas are products produced by the most important industry in Iraq.
Other products and services include light manufacturing, food processing, textiles, and mining of nonmetallic minerals. Iraq may only legally trade with other countries through the oil-for-food program, wherein they are allowed to sell oil to buy basic food supplies.
However, diplomatic reports have indicated that Iraq has been illegally exporting some of its medical supplies and food, purchased through the oil-for-food program, to Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Prior to the sanctions, Iraq's main exports were crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas, chemical fertilizers, and dates. Division of Labor. It is common for jobs to be assigned through knowing people in the government.
Those who enter the military may have more opportunity locating work, as they are trained for jobs that are specifically needed in the country. Classes and Castes. Arabs, Kurds, and other ethnic groups each have their own social stratospheres, and no one ethnicity dominates another in a caste system. In terms of social class there is great disparity between rich and poor.
Those who compose the high class in society of Iraq are essentially chosen by the government, since there is no opportunity to start a business or make a name for oneself without the endorsement of the government. The once-dominant middle class of the s has deteriorated in the face of the economic crisis.
These people, who are very well educated, now perform unskilled labor, if they have jobs at all, and have joined the ranking of the majority lower or poor class. Iraq is a republic divided into eighteen provinces, which are subdivided into districts.
There is a National Assembly elected every four years, and they meet twice annually and work with the Revolutionary Command Council RCC to make legislative decisions. The RCC holds ultimate authority over legislative decisions, and the chairman of the RCC is also president of the country. The president exercises all executive decision-making powers, and he as well as the vice presidents are elected by a two-thirds majority vote of the RCC.
There is universal suffrage at age eighteen, and the popular vote elects of the seats in the National Assembly. The president chooses the remaining 30 seats, which belong to the three provinces of Kurdistan; he also appoints judges. Leadership and Political Officials. On 16 July Saddam Hussein became president of Iraq, and has been reelected since.
He is also the prime minister, as well as chairman of the RCC. The Baath Party, which stands for Arab Socialist Resurrection, is the controlling party of the government and the most powerful political party. Political activities are carried out through the Progressive National Front PNF , which is an official organization of political parties. Politics that try to be exercised outside the framework of the PNF are banned.
Though granted the right to vote for some positions, many Iraqis feel that elections are fixed. They also fear that they might vote for the "wrong" candidate and that they may be punished for doing so. It is a crime for any Iraqi to speak out against the government, and those who disagree with it place themselves and their families at great risk of being persecuted, as many citizens will turn in fellow Iraqis they feel are not loyal to the government or Saddam Hussein.
Social Problems and Control. The head of the formal judicial system is the Court of Cassation, which is the highest court in the country. There are other levels of courts, and all judges are government-appointed. Personal disputes are handled by religious community courts, which are based on Islamic law.
Normally punishment is swift for crimes, with no long court trials and with severe sentences. The crime rate has been traditionally low, but following the United Nations embargo, there has been an increase in crime, especially theft.
In addition to crimes by the general public, many crimes by corrupt police and military forces have been reported, the most common being bribery and blackmail. Conditions in prisons are said to be extremely harsh. Prisoners are housed with more than twenty people in a cell meant for two, with no sanitation system, and no food is given unless brought by relatives. Other punishment practices include torture, often in front of family members, and execution. Military Activity.
Current statistics about Iraq's military are not available, though it is believed to be one of the strongest in the world. Iraq has not officially stated that military service is compulsory, but another statistic from stated that most of the , service people were required to be in the military. The average length of service was eighteen to twenty-four months, and there were another , in the reserves. Regarding compensation, wages for those who fought in the Iran-Iraq War were generous. Journalists reported that families who lost a son in the fighting would receive compensation in such A residential district in Baghdad.
After the economic boom of the s, high priority was placed on restoring and building according to historic style. It is estimated that current compensation to the military has changed, but no specific information is available. Before the Persian Gulf War, welfare benefits such as Social Security, pensions for retirees and disabled people, and money for maternity and sick leaves were available. Currently the only known welfare programs are food distribution and medical aid food.
Some nongovernmental organizations NGOs have been involved, but unless the Iraqi government can direct NGO operations, they are not permitted to function.
The most important NGOs are those that are responsible for food rationing and distribution, medical aid, and rebuilding of water and sewage treatment facilities. Currently Iraqi leaders have been turning down humanitarian efforts and have refused offers of relief from private medical groups. They recently expelled representatives of the Middle East Council of Churches, and denied entry of a Russian envoy from the United Nations who was to investigate the cases of missing persons since The only NGOs Iraq allows are foreign antisanctions protesters, who bring in small amounts of aid but who are welcome principally because of the propaganda they provide.
The presence of NGOs is different between the south and the three provinces of Kurdistan in the north. Kurdistan hosts more than thirty NGOs, while in there were eleven in the south, with even fewer in Local Kurdish officials work with the United Nations to manage food, health, and economic programs, while the resources and control of the NGOs are restricted in the south. Due to the attitude toward NGOs as well as other contributing factors such as arable land, population, and availability of natural resources, the north is more productive agriculturally and economically and has a more advanced health system infrastructure.
The south, under Iraqi control and closed to outside help, has An Iraqi woman collects her monthly food rations from the Red Cross in Baghdad.
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